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274 a bank (or other institution) with seemingly legitimate requests. Yet Aarelaid believes that the attackers who came after Estonia aimed to flaunt the range and power of their arsenal. If the orders came from the Kremlin, the message to former Soviet satellites was clear: defy us at your own risk. Estonia, courageously, went ahead and moved the Soviet monument anyway. The attack revealed the vulnerability of a NATO member to ex- ternal pressure. If a group in Russia could wreak so much havoc over a statue, imagine what a state-sponsored effort could do? Attackers could infect and gain control of thousands of computers – much like Ghost- Net did – and go after banks all across Europe, leading to digital chaos – online banking would go down, credit-card purchases couldn't be veri- fied. Factor in electricity grids, dams and airport navigation systems, which are connected to the Internet, and it begins to sound like a Hol- lywood movie. The trick, from NATO's standpoint, is figuring out when an at- tack is hacker mischief and when it's a military matter. Back in 2007, Estonia's minister of defense stated that "the attacks cannot be treated as hooliganism, but have to be treated as an attack against the state." But no troops crossed Estonia's borders, and there was almost nothing that we associate with a conventional conflict. How to respond, and against whom? The first step, say scientists at the center, is to identify when a threat warrants a military response. "In the absence of a clear legal framework for dealing with cyberattacks, it's very hard to decide whether to treat them as the beginning of armed conflict," says Rain Ottis, one of the center's senior scientists. The United States is clearly leaning toward a military strategy. In March the U.S. Senate took up a bill that would bring cybersecurity work at the NSA, Air Force, DHS and a dozen other agencies under a "cybersecurity czar," who would also become a "national cybersecurity adviser." It would arm this person with unprecedented powers, includ- ing the right to shut off federal networks if they are found to be vulner-