Английский язык: Аннотирование и реферирование текста

273 of Excellence analyze emerging viruses and other threats, and pass on alerts to sponsoring NATO governments. They are also working to bring the allies together on the elusive issues that deepen the fog of cy- berwar. Experts with backgrounds in the military, technology, law and science are wrestling with such questions as: What qualifies as a cyber "attack" on a NATO member, and so triggers the obligation of alliance members to rush to its defense? And how can the alliance defend itself in cyberspace? Already, the debate is producing strikingly different an- swers: as Washington moves to create a new "cybersecurity czar" and new funds for cyberdefenses, Estonia is moving much of the job into civilian hands, aiming to create a nation of citizens alert and wise to online threats. The choice of Estonia as the home to NATO's new cyberwar brain trust is not accidental. In 2007 Estonia was in a public squabble with Russia over the fate of a Soviet-era monument when it suddenly found itself under a wave of cyberattacks. Among the targets were two of Estonia's biggest banks, whose online systems were severely de- graded for several hours. The scale of the economic damage is still classified as a state secret, but the fact that this happened in "E-stonia," a proud digital society where even parking meters take payment via text messages, was eye-opening. Although the decentralized nature of cy- berattacks made it hard to know whether the Kremlin ordered the at- tacks, clues led Estonia to a Russian suspect, whom the Kremlin re- fused to extradite. One thing is clear: Russia gained from what may be the first suc- cessful invasion in the new age of cyberwar. Hillar Aarelaid, a manager at Estonia's computer emergency response team, who coordinated Esto- nia's defenses during the assault, told me that the attack used a nasty weapon called a "distributed denial of service," or DDOS. Cheap to organize and devastating, DDOS involves a small gang of hackers who command a cyber-army of infected PCs to overwhelm the Web sites of